CARDIOVASCULAR RISK FACTOR PARADOX. A FOCUS ON SMOKING
https://doi.org/10.17802/2306-1278-2019-8-1-90-99
Abstract
Modifiable cardiovascular risk factors commonly include disorders of lipid metabolism, arterial hypertension, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, overweight, etc. The number of epidemiological studies have already proved the presence of the associations between them and the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases. However, the analysis of the recent studies showed that despite the negative impact of these factors on cardiovascular health, there are some arguments that prove their positive effects. Such a phenomenon is commonly described in the publications as a “paradox” of a particular risk factor. This review presents data on the smoking paradox – one of the leading risk factors contributing to the development of cardiovascular diseases.
About the Authors
I. V. Samorodskaya
Federal State Budgetary Institution “State Research Center for Preventive Medicine” of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation, 10, Petroverigsky LN, Moscow, 3101990
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
PhD, Professor, Head of the Laboratory for Demographic Aspects of Population Health,
E. D. Bazdyrev
Federal State Budgetary Institution “Research Institute for Complex Issues of Cardiovascular Diseases”, 6, Sosnoviy Blvd, Kemerovo, 650002
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
PhD, senior researcher at the Department of Multivessel and Polyvascular Disease,
O. L. Barbarash
Federal State Budgetary Institution “Research Institute for Complex Issues of Cardiovascular Diseases”;
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “Kemerovo State Medical University” of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
PhD, Professor, Corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Director, 6, Sosnoviy Blvd, Kemerovo, 650002;
Head of the Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Surgery, 22a, Voroshilova St, Kemerovo, 650056
References
1. Samorodskaya I.V., Bolotova E.V., Timofeeva Yu.K. Prevalence of risk factors and programs for prevention of cardiovascular disease among the rural population. The Russian Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health. 2016; 19(6): 21-25. doi: 10.17116/profmed201619521-25. (In Russ).
2. Fanning N., Merriman T.R., Dalbeth N., Stamp L.K. An association of smoking with serum urate and gout: a health paradox. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 2018; 47(6): 825-842. doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2017.11.004.
3. Aune E., Røislien J., Mathisen M., Thelle D.S., Otterstad J.E. The "smoker's paradox" in patients with acute coronary syndrome: a systematic review. BMC Med. 2011; 9: 97. doi: 10.1186/1741-7015-9-97.
4. Kirtane A.J., Kelly C.R. Clearing the air on smoker’s paradox. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2015; 65(11): 1116-1118. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2015.01.012.
5. Bell T.M., Bayt D.R., Zarzaur B.L. "Smoker's paradox" in patients treated for severe injuries: lower risk of mortality after trauma observed in current smokers. Nicotine Tob. Res. 2015; 17(12): 1499-1504. doi: 10.1093/ntr/ntv027.
6. Lavie C.J., McAuley P.A., Church T.S., Milani R.V., Blair S.N. Obesity and cardiovascular diseases: implications regarding fitness, fatness, and severity in the obesity paradox. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2014; 63(14): 1345–1354. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2014.01.022.
7. Tan X.F., Shi J.X., Chen A.M. Prolonged and intensive medication use are associated with the obesity paradox after percutaneous coronary intervention: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 12 studies. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord. 2016; 16: 125. doi: 10.1186/s12872-016-0310-7.
8. Gonzalez-Cambeiro M.C., Abu-Assi E., Raposeiras-Roubin S., Rodriguez-Manero M., Otero-Ravina F., González-Juanatey J.R. et al. Exploring the obesity paradox in atrial fibrillation. AFBAR (Atrial Fibrillation Barbanza Area) registry results. J. Atr. Fibrillation. 2014; 6(5): 991. doi: 10.4022/jafib.991.
9. Wang J., Yang Y.M., Zhu J., Zhang H., Shao X.H. Obesity paradox in patients with atrial fibrillation and heart failure. Int. J. Cardiol. 2014; 176(3): 1356-1358. doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2014.07.264.
10. Gruberg L., Weissman N.J., Waksman R., Fuchs S., Deible R., Pinnow E.E. et al. The impact of obesity on the short-term and long-term outcomes after percutaneous coronary intervention: the obesity paradox? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2002; 39(4): 578-584. doi:10.1016/S0735-1097(01)01802-2.
11. Flegal K.M., Kit B.K., Orpana H., Graubard B.I. Association of all-cause mortality with overweight and obesity using standard body mass index categories: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2013; 309(1): 71-82. doi: 10.1001/jama.2012.113905.
12. Hamer M., Stamatakis E. Overweight and obese cardiac patients have better prognosis despite reporting worse perceived health and more conventional risk factors. Prev. Med. 2013; 57(1): 12-16. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2013.02.012.
13. Chugh S.S., Weiss J.B. Sudden cardiac death in the older athlete. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2015; 65(5): 493-502. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2014.10.064.
14. Pontzer H., Durazo-Arvizu R., Dugas L.R., Plange-Rhule J., Bovet P., Forrester T.E. et al. Constrained total energy expenditure and metabolic adaptation to physical activity in adult humans. Curr. Biol. 2016; 26(3): 410-417. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.046.
15. Jankovic N., Geelen A., Streppel M.T., de Groot L.C., Kiefte-de Jong J.C., Orfanos P. et al. WHO guidelines for a healthy diet and mortality from cardiovascular disease in European and American elderly: the CHANCES project. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2015; 102(4): 745-756. doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.095117.
16. Harcombe Z., Baker J.S., Cooper S.M., Davies B., Sculthorpe N., DiNicolantonio J.J. et al. Evidence from randomised controlled trials did not support the introduction of dietary fat guidelines in 1977 and 1983: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Open Heart. 2015; 2(1): e000196. doi: 10.1136/openhrt-2014-000196.
17. Helmers C. Short and long-term prognostic indices in acute myocardial infarction. A study of 606 patients initially treated in a coronary care unit. Acta Med. Scand. Suppl. 1973; 555: 7-26.
18. Kelly T.L., Gilpin E., Ahnve S., Henning H., Ross J. Smoking status at the time of acute myocardial infarction and subsequent prognosis. Am. Heart J. 1985; 110(3): 535-541. doi:10.1016/0002-8703(85)90071-7.
19. Sparrow D., Dawber T.R. The influence of cigarette smoking on prognosis after a first myocardial infarction. A report from the Framingham Study. J. Chronic Dis. 1978; 31(6-7): 425- 432. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9681(78)90006-1.
20. Weinblatt E., Shapiro S., Frank C.W, Sager R.V. Prognosis of men after first myocardial infarction: mortality and first recurrence in relation to selected parameters. Am. J. Public Health Nations Health. 1968; 58: 1329-1347.
21. Gupta T., Kolte D., Khera S., Harikrishnan P., Mujib M., Aronow W.S. et al. Smoker's paradox in patients with STsegment elevation myocardial infarction undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 2016; 5(4). e003370. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.116.003370.
22. Barbash G.I., Reiner J., White H.D., Wilcox R.G., Armstrong P.W., Sadowski Z. et al. Evaluation of paradoxic beneficial effects of smoking in patients receiving thrombolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction: mechanism of the “smoker's paradox” from the GUSTO-I trial, with angiographic insights. Global Utilization of Streptokinase and Tissue-Plasminogen Activator for Occluded Coronary Arteries. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1995; 26: 1222-1229. doi:10.1016/0735-1097(95)00299-5.
23. Zahger D., Cercek B., Cannon C.P., Jordan M., Davis V., Braunwald E. et al How do smokers differ from nonsmokers in their response to thrombolysis? (the TIMI-4 trial). Am. J. Cardiol. 1995; 75(4): 232-236. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9149(95)80026-O.
24. Barbash G.I., White H.D., Modan M., Diaz R., Hampton J.R., Heikkila J. et al. Acute myocardial infarction in the young – the role of smoking. The Investigators of the International Tissue Plasminogen Activator/Streptokinase Mortality Trial. Eur. Heart J. 1995; 16: 313-316. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.eurheartj.a060912.
25. Grines C.L., Topol E.J., O'Neill W.W., George B.S., Kereiakes D., Phillips H.R. et al. Effect of cigarette smoking on outcome after thrombolytic therapy for myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1995; 91: 298-303.
26. Gottlieb S., Boyko V., Zahger D., Balkin J., Hod H., Pelled B. et al. Smoking and prognosis after acute myocardial infarction in the thrombolytic era (Israeli Thrombolytic National Survey). J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1996; 28(6): 1506-1513. doi:10.1016/S0735-1097(96)00334-8.
27. Barbash G.I., White H.D., Modan M., Diaz R., Hampton J.R., Heikkila J. et al. Significance of smoking in patients receiving thrombolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction. Experience gleaned from the International Tissue Plasminogen Activator/Streptokinase Mortality Trial. Circulation. 1993; 87(1): 53-58. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.87.1.53.
28. Symons R., Masci P.G., Francone M., Claus P., Barison A., Carbone I. et al. Impact of active smoking on myocardial infarction severity in reperfused ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction patients: the smoker's paradox revisited. Eur. Heart J. 2016; 37(36): 2756-2764. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehv738.
29. Murray K.N., Abeles N. Nicotine's effect on neural and cognitive functioning in an aging population. Aging Ment. Health. 2002; 6(2): 129-38. doi: 10.1080/13607860220126808.
30. Grizzell J.A., Echeverria V. New insights into the mechanisms of action of cotinine and its distinctive effects from nicotine. Neurochem. Res. 2015; 40(10): 2032-2046. doi: 10.1007/s11064-014-1359-2.
31. Gee Teng G., Pan A., Yuan J.M., Koh W.P. Cigarette smoking and the risk of incident gout in a prospective cohort study. Arthritis Care Res. (Hoboken). 2016; 68(8): 1135-1142. doi: 10.1002/acr.22821.
32. Wang W., Krishnan E. Cigarette smoking is associated with a reduction in the risk of incident gout: results from the Framingham Heart Study original cohort. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2015; 54(1): 91-95. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keu304.
33. Benowitz N.L., Burbank A.D. Cardiovascular toxicity of nicotine: implications for electronic cigarette use. Trends Cardiovasc. Med. 2016; 26(6): 515-523. doi: 10.1016/j.tcm.2016.03.001.
34. Al Rifai M., DeFillippis A.P., McEvoy J.W., Hall M.E., Navas Acien A., Jones M.R. et al. The relationship between smoking intensity and subclinical cardiovascular injury: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Atherosclerosis. 2017; 258: 119-130. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2017.01.021.
35. Liu C.C., Yeh H.I. Nicotine: a double-edged sword in atherosclerotic disease. Acta Cardiol. Sin. 2014; 30(2): 108- 113. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4805015/
36. Sambola A., Osende J., Hathcock J., Degen M., Nemerson Y., Fuster V. et al. Role of risk factors in the modulation of tissue factor activity and blood thrombogenicity. Circulation. 2003; 107(7): 973-977. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000050621.67499.7D.
37. Caponnetto P., Russo C., Di Maria A., Morjaria J. B., Barton S., Guarino F. et al. Circulating endothelial-coagulative activation markers after smoking cessation: a 12-month observational study. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 2011; 41(6): 616-626. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2362.2010.02449.x.
38. Lupia E., Bosco O., Goffi A., Poletto C., Locatelli S., Spatola T. et al. Thrombopoietin contributes to enhanced platelet activation in cigarette smokers. Atherosclerosis. 2010; 210(1): 314-319. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2009.11.019.
39. Girdhar G., Xu S., Bluestein D., Jesty J. Reducednicotine cigarettes increase platelet activation in smokers in vivo: a dilemma in harm reduction. Nicotine Tob. Res. 2008; 10(12): 1737-1744. doi: 10.1080/14622200802443528.
40. Privalova E.V., Kuzubova N.A., Vavilova T.V., Titova O.N. Sovremennye vozmozhnosti monitoringa i podbora antiagregantnoj terapii u bol'nyh hronicheskoj obstruktivnoj bolezn'yu legkih. Pul'monologiya. 2011; (3): 59-63. (In Russian).
41. Zhang Q., Wang Y., Song H., Hou C., Cao Q., Dong K. et al. Clopidogrel and ischemic stroke outcomes by smoking status: Smoker's paradox? J. Neurol. Sci. 2017; 373: 41-44. doi: 10.1016/j.jns.2016.12.025.
42. A randomised, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischemic events (CAPRIE). CAPRIE Steering Committee. Lancet. 1996; 348(9038): 1329-1339. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(96)09457-3.
43. Ferreiro J.L., Bhatt D.L., Ueno M., Bauer D., Angiolillo D.J. Impact of smoking on long-term outcomes in patients with atherosclerotic vascular disease treated with aspirin or clopidogrel: insights from the CAPRIE trial (clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischemic events). J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2014; 63(8): 769-777. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2013.10.043.
44. Maruyama H., Fukuoka T., Deguchi I., Ohe Y., Horiuchi Y., Katoet Y. al. Relationship between smoking and responsiveness to clopidogrel in non-cardiogenic ischemic stroke patients. Intern. Med. 2014; 53(22): 2575-2579. doi: 10.2169/internalmedicine.53.2918.
45. Park K.W., Kang S.H., Kang J., Jeon K.H., Park J.J., Han J.K. et al. Enhanced clopidogrel response in smokers is reversed after discontinuation as assessed by VerifyNow assay: additional evidence for the concept of 'smokers' paradox. Heart. 2012; 98(13): 1000-1006. doi: 10.1136/heartjnl-2011-301565.
46. Gonçalves R.B., Coletta R.D., Silvério K.G., Benevides L., Casati M.Z., da Silva J.S. et al. Impact of smoking on inflammation: overview of molecular mechanisms. Inflamm Res. 2011; 60(5): 409-424. doi: 10.1007/s00011-011-0308-7.
47. Patiar S., Slade D., Kirkpatrick U., McCollum C.N. Smoking causes a dose-dependent increase in granulocytebound L-selectin. Thromb. Res. 2002; 106(1): 1-6. doi: 10.1016/ S0049-3848(02)00082-8.
48. Levitzky Y.S., Guo C.Y., Rong J., Larson M.G., Walter R.E., Keaney J.F. et al. Relation of smoking status to a panel of inflammatory markers: The Framingham offspring. Atherosclerosis. 2008; 201(1): 217-224. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2007.12.058.
49. Filippini P., Cesario A., Fini M., Locatelli F., Rutella S. The Yin and Yang of non-neuronal α7-nicotinic receptors in inflammation and autoimmunity. Curr. Drug Targets. 2012; 13(5): 644-655. doi: 10.2174/138945012800399008.
50. Zhang Y.J., Iqbal J., van Klaveren D., Campos C.M., Holmes D.R., Kappetein A.P. et al. Smoking is associated with adverse clinical outcomes in patients undergoing revascularization with PCI or CABG: the SYNTAX trial at 5-year follow-up. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2015; 65(11): 1107-1115. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2015.01.014.
51. Carter B.D., Abnet C.C., Feskanich D., Freedman N.D., Hartge P., Lewis C.E. et al. Smoking and mortality - beyond established causes. N. Engl. J. Med. 2015; 372(7): 631-640. doi: 10.1056/NEJMsa1407211.
52. Bazdyrev E.D., Polikutina O.M., Kalichenko N.A., Slepynina Yu.S., Uchasova E.G., Pavlova V.Yu. et al. Relationship between smoking and indicators of systemic inflammation in patients with coronary heart disease. Clinical Medicine (Russian Journal). 2017; 95(3): 264-271. doi: 10.18821/0023-2149-2017-95-3-264-271. (In Russian).
53. Ostroumova O.D., Izvekov A.A., Voevodina N.Yu. Smoking as a risk factor of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases: prevalence, impact on prognosis, possible smoking cessation strategies and their effectiveness. Part 1. Smoking prevalence and impact on prognosis. Rational Pharmacotherapy in Cardiology. 2017; 13(6): 871-879. doi: 10.20996/1819-6446-2017-13-6-871-879. (In Russian).
54. Howe M., Leidal A., Montgomery D., Jackoson E. Role of cigarette smoking and gender in acute coronary syndrome events. Am. J Cardiol. 2011; 108(10): 1382-1386. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcrd.2011.06.059.
55. Turan A., Mascha E.J., Roberman D., Turner P.L., You J., Kurz A. et al. Smoking and perioperative outcomes. Anestesiology. 2011; 114(4): 837-846. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0b013e318210f560.
56. Zhang Y.J., Iqbal J., van Klaveren D., Campos C.M., Holmes D.R., Kappetein A.P. et al. Smoking is associated with adverse clinical outcomes in patients undergoing revascularization with PCI or CABG: the SYNTAX trial at 5-year follow-up. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2015; 65(11): 1107- 1115. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2015.01.014.
57. Global'nyj opros vzroslogo naseleniya o potreblenii tabaka: Rossijskaya Federaciya. Kratkij obzor, 2016 g. VOZ, 2016. 10 s. [Global Adult Survey on Tobacco Use]. Available at: http://www.euro.who.int/ru/health-topics/disease-prevention/ tobacco/publications/2017/global-adult-tobacco-surveyrussian-federation.-executive-summary-2016-2017 (accessed 23.10.2018) (In Russian).
58. Pelevina I.D., Shaporova N.L., Trofimov V.I. Osobennosti vedeniya bol'nyh s sochetannoj patologiej na fone otkaza ot kureniya v ambulatornyh usloviyah. Atmosfera. Pul'monologiya i allergologiya. 2011; 4: 55-60. (In Russian).
Review
For citations:
Samorodskaya I.V., Bazdyrev E.D., Barbarash O.L. CARDIOVASCULAR RISK FACTOR PARADOX. A FOCUS ON SMOKING. Complex Issues of Cardiovascular Diseases. 2019;8(1):90-99. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.17802/2306-1278-2019-8-1-90-99
Views:
1433
